IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY,
IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, a German physician who studied in Vienna set up a clinic following an
interest in so-called animal magnetism, which he developed into a system of treatment through
hypnotism. It was called mesmerism, after his name: Franz Anton Mesmer. Dr. Mesmer claimed he
could cure nervous system problems using magnetism. According to Mesmer, a proper balance of a
“subtle fluid” maintained the body’s health. This subtle fluid was the same one responsible for heat,
light, and gravity, and it floated throughout the universe. Dr. Mesmer created animal magnetism by
focusing on the magnetic poles of the body, which he thought helped direct this fluid. Under his
theory, the poles had to be aligned properly to work and to maintain a correct, smooth, and
harmonious flow of fluid. If the fluid balance was off, a person could develop “nervous afflictions,”
and he or she would need to be “mesmerized” to get the poles realigned and the fluid rebalanced.
It didn’t take long for Dr. Mesmer to generate publicity as well as notoriety. He received a lot of
attention and got a lot of people—educated and not—curious. The medical and scientific community
feared Mesmer; the government worried about secrecy and subversion of his growing group. In 1777
he was expelled from Vienna, so he went to Paris and established himself all over again.
By the 1780s he had accumulated new disciples and set up shops with them in Paris. These
believers “mesmerized” people by claiming to locate their poles and control their fluid. One can
picture a dramatic scene of the mad scientist waving his arms in the air, gathering his powers, and
then administering the power of his touch to hapless people with “nervous afflictions,” as if futilely
attempting to draw demons from them. His popularity became part mystery, part fashion. Getting
treated by Mesmer and his “mesmerists” became a trendy thing to do. They would use a very elaborate
apparatus, complete with mesmeric tubes, bottles of mesmerized water, and iron bars that carried the
subtle fluid. These mesmeric treatments happened in secluded areas. Hence, the mystery and notoriety
created.
Dr. Mesmer didn’t last very long in Paris, either. Investigations commenced. A royal government
commission that included such names as Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and Benjamin Franklin looked
into his independent practice. In 1785, Mesmer left Paris for London, and then went on to Austria,
Italy, Switzerland, and eventually to his native Germany, where he returned to a village near his
birthplace and died in 1815. No matter where he went, he tried to win the universal acclaim he
believed he deserved for his therapies.
It’s now generally accepted that Mesmer was actually treating psychosomatic illness, and he
profited mightily from people’s gullibility. In retrospect, his theories and practices sound ridiculous,
but in truth, the story of Mesmer parallels many stories of today. It’s not so ridiculous to imagine
people falling prey to products, procedures, and health claims that are brilliantly marketed. Every day
we hear of some news item related to health. We are bombarded by messages about our health—good,
bad, and confusingly contradictory. And we are literally mesmerized by these messages. Even the
smart, educated, cautious, and skeptical consumer is mesmerized. It’s hard to separate truth from
fiction, and to know the difference between what’s healthful and harmful when the information and
endorsements come from “experts.”
If you consider some of the advice doled out in the past century from these so-called experts,
you’ll quickly realize that many things do not always appear as they seem. It’s quite common to
witness a complete about-face when it comes to the validity of a certain fact, claim, or practice.
Bloodletting was still common in the late nineteenth century. We used to think that eggs were evil and
margarine was magical, but now we know that eggs are among the world’s most nutrient-dense foods
and that margarine contains deadly trans fats. Doctors in the mid-twentieth century used to pose for
cigarette advertisements, and later on, they began to say that baby formula was much better than
breast milk for children. And while it’s hard to conceive of today, not too long ago we thought that
diet had absolutely no effect on disease. We now know otherwise.
When I imagine the world fifty years from now, I wonder what kind of bogus claims that many of
us accept today will have been evicted from society. I also wonder whether I’ll have had any
influence, given the work I’ve been doing, to change people’s misguided perspectives on carbs, fat,
and cholesterol. Indeed, there are powerful forces behind our viewpoints today. Walk into any
supermarket and you’ll be met with dozens of reasons why you should eat this or that—many of those
assertions perpetuating false facts and promises. This is especially true for foods labeled “healthy”
whole grains, low-fat, and cholesterol-free. In addition to telling you these goods are your ticket to a
longer, more vibrant life, food manufacturers somehow tie them to a lower risk of cancer, heart
disease, diabetes, and obesity. But you know the truth.
We live in an exciting time in medicine; we finally have the technology at our fingertips to help us
diagnose, treat, and cure many illnesses that shortened life just a few decades ago. But we also live in
a time when the number of people dying from chronic disease is double that of the number of people
dying from infectious disease (including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria), maternal and
perinatal conditions, and nutritional deficiencies combined.
1
It’s common knowledge that our
country’s health care system is in need of repair. Health care costs are exorbitant. We spend nearly 20
percent of our gross domestic product on health care, and health insurance premiums for the average
family continue to rise, costing more than fifteen thousand dollars a year. And although we are
presently ranked first in the world in health-care spending, we are ranked thirty-seventh in overall
health-system performance, according to the World Health Organization,
2 and twenty-second in life
expectancy among the thirty developed countries.
What will save our system and our future generations? We cannot wait for the massively
complicated health-care system to fix itself, just as we cannot expect change to happen as fast as we
need it. We also cannot rely on drugs to keep us alive and well. In many cases, as I’ve described in
this book, drugs push us further away from where we really want to be. We must start individually
with small shifts in our daily habits that amount to huge gains in our health quotient today and in the
future.
Though some consider the beating heart to be the center of life (after all, it’s the heartbeat we seek
in those first few weeks of life), it’s really the brain that takes center stage. Our heart wouldn’t beat
without our brain, and it is our brain that allows us to experience the world on every level—to feel
pleasure and pain, to love and to learn, to make decisions, and to participate in life in ways that make
it worth living!
Until we face a health challenge that affects our brain’s functionality, we tend to take our mental
faculties for granted. We assume that our mind will travel with us wherever we go. But what if that
doesn’t happen? And what if we can in fact guarantee our mental prowess and brainpower just by
actively nurturing the brain in the ways I’ve described? We all cherish the right to free speech, the
right to privacy, and the right to vote, among others. These are fundamental to our way of life. But
what about the right to a long life, free of cognitive decline and mental disease? You can claim this
right today. I hope you do.
Acknowledgments
AS ANYONE WHO HAS EVER WRITTEN a book knows, it takes an army of creative, bright, and tireless
people to put it all together. And just when you think you’re done, another troop of equally brilliant
people emerges on the scene to help see things through until a reader like you can absorb the very first
page.
If I had my way, I’d list everyone who has ever contributed to my thinking and supported me
throughout my life and career. But that would entail hundreds of people and many pages here, so I will
keep this short and sweet. I am indebted to all the scientists and my fellow colleagues who have
worked to understand the mysteries of the human brain and body. I am also forever grateful to my
patients, who teach me every day and provide insights that cannot be found elsewhere. This book is as
much yours as it is mine.
Thanks to my friend and literary agent, Bonnie Solow. It was your recognition of the importance of
this message that catalyzed all that has followed. But more than anything else, I am appreciative that
this project has brought us our friendship. Thanks for your gracious leadership and attention to details.
I know that you’ve gone beyond the call of duty—protecting, guiding, and helping this book reach the
masses.
To Kristin Loberg: while the content of this work represents my research and professional
experience, it is wholly through your artistic mastery that our message is now conveyed.
To the indefatigable team at Little, Brown that has championed this book since our first meeting. A
special thanks to Tracy Behar, my editor with an unparalleled gift for making sure the message
remains clear, succinct, and practical. Your talented editorial genius made this such a better book
through all its iterations. Thanks also to Michael Pietsch, Reagan Arthur, Theresa Giacopasi, Nicole
Dewey, Heather Fain, and Miriam Parker. It’s been a pleasure to work with such a dedicated,
professional group.
To Digital Natives, my savvy tech team responsible for making my website come alive as a
companion to the book.
To the entire team at our clinic, the Perlmutter Health Center, for your dedication.
To my wife, Leize. Thank you for all the time and commitment in lovingly preparing the recipes. I
am grateful beyond measure to have you in my life. Thanks also to Dee Harris, RD, for your insightful
nutritional input.
And finally, I wish to acknowledge my children, Austin and Reisha, who have never ceased to
encourage and support me on this journey.
About the Author
David Perlmutter, MD, is a board-certified, practicing neurologist and Fellow of the American
College of Nutrition. He is the recipient of numerous awards, including the Humanitarian of the Year
Award from the American College of Nutrition and the Linus Pauling Award for his pioneering
research in neurodegenerative diseases. His writings appear extensively in medical publications and
he lectures worldwide. Dr. Perlmutter serves on the Medical Advisory Board for The Dr. Oz Show, and
has appeared on many nationally syndicated radio and television programs, including 20/20, Today,
Good Morning America, The Dr. Oz Show, and The Early Show and on CNN and Fox News. He lives in
Naples, Florida, with his wife and two children.
ALSO BY DAVID PERLMUTTER, MD
Power Up Your Brain
Raise a Smarter Child by Kindergarten
The Better Brain Book
Illustration Credits
Here:
Reprinted from The Lancet Neurology, Volume 9, Issue 3, M.
Hadjivassiliou, MD, et al., Gluten sensitivity: from gut to brain,
pages 318–330, March 2010, with permission from Elsevier.
Here:
From: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;
cdc.gov/diabetes/statistics/prev/national/figpersons.htm.
Here:
Adapted from: “Statin use and risk of diabetes mellitus in
postmenopausal women in the Women’s Health Initiative.” A.
L. Culver, et al., Archives of Internal Medicine 2012;
172(2):144–52.
Here:
Adapted from: “Risk factors for progression of brain atrophy in
aging. Six-year follow-up of normal subjects.” C. Enzinger, et
al., Neurology 64: 1704–11; May 24, 2005.
Here:
“America’s State of Mind,” a report by Express Scripts, 2011.
Reprinted with permission.
Here:
© Randy Glasbergen. glasbergen.com Reprinted with
permission.
Here:
Adapted from: “Total daily physical activity and the risk of AD
and cognitive decline in older adults.” A. S. Buchman, P. A.
Boyle, L. Yu, et al. Neurology 2012; 78; 1323.
Here:
Adapted from: “Total daily physical activity and the risk of AD
and cognitive decline in older adults.” A. S. Buchman, P. A.
Boyle, L. Yu, et al. Neurology 2012; 78; 1323.
Here:
Adapted from: “Exercise training increases size of hippocampus
and improves memory.” Erikson, K. I., et al. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 2011 February 15;
108(7):3017–22.
Notes
The following is a list of books and scientific papers that you might find helpful in learning more
about some of the ideas and concepts expressed in this book. These materials can also open doors for
further research and inquiry. For access to more studies and an ongoing updated list of references,
please visit www.DrPerlmutter.com.
Introduction
1. MetLife Foundation, “What America Thinks: MetLife Foundation Alzheimer’s Survey,” study conducted by Harris Interactive,
February 2011, https://www.metlife.com/assets/cao/foundation/alzheimers-2011.pdf (accessed February 13, 2013).
2. Annie L. Culver, et al., “Statin Use and Risk of Diabetes Mellitus in Postmenopausal Women in the Women’s Health Initiative,”
Archives of Internal Medicine 172, no. 2 (2012): 144–52.
3. Åsa Blomström, et al., “Maternal Antibodies to Dietary Antigens and Risk for Nonaffective Psychosis in Offspring,” American
Journal of Psychiatry 169 (2012): 625–32.
Chapter 1
1. Eric Steen, et al., “Impaired Insulin and Insulin-like Growth Factor Expression and Signaling Mechanisms in Alzheimer’s
Disease—Is This Type 3 Diabetes?” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 7, no. 1 (2005): 63–80.
2. R. O. Roberts, et al., “Relative Intake of Macronutrients Impacts Risk of Mild Cognitive Impairment or Dementia,” Journal of
Alzheimer’s Disease 32, no. 2 (2012): 329–39.
3. http://www.doctoroz.com/videos/alzheimers-diabetes-brain.
4. Mark Bittman, “Is Alzheimer’s Type 3 Diabetes?” New York Times, September 25, 2012,
http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/25/bittman-is-alzheimers-type-3-diabetes/ (accessed October 15, 2012). Bittman’s
piece provides a great explanation of type 3 diabetes.
5. http://www.diabetes.webmd.com (accessed May 13, 2013).
6. http://aiafoundation.org/patients-families/facts-figures/.
7. http://www.rhodeislandhospital.org/wtn/Page.asp?PageID=WTN000249
8. Bittman, “Is Alzheimer’s Type 3 Diabetes?” (see chap. 1, n. 4).
9. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6145a4.htm (accessed May 13, 2013).
10. http://www.framinghamheartstudy.org.
11. Penelope K. Elias, et al., “Serum Cholesterol and Cognitive Performance in the Framingham Heart Study,” Psychosomatic
Medicine 67, no. 1 (2005): 24–30.
12. Nicolas Cherbuin, et al., “Higher Normal Fasting Plasma Glucose Is Associated with Hippocampal Atrophy: The PATH Study,”
Neurology 79, no. 10 (January/February 2012): 1019–26. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31826846de.
13. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/09/120904095856.htm (accessed May 13, 2013).
14. Walter F. Stewart, et al., “Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease and Duration of NSAID Use,” Neurology 48, no. 3 (March 1997): 626–
32.
15. Angelika D. Wahner, et al., “Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs May Protect Against Parkinson’s Disease,” Neurology 69,
no. 19 (November 6, 2007): 1836–42.
16. Jose Miguel Rubio-Perez, et al., “A Review: Inflammatory Process in Alzheimer’s Disease, Role of Cytokines,” Scientific World
Journal (April 1 2012). doi: 10.1100/2012/756357.
17. William Davis, Wheat Belly (New York: Rodale Books, 2011).
Chapter 2
1. Keith O’Brien, “Should We All Go Gluten-free?” New York Times, November 25, 2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/27/magazine/Should-We-All-Go-Gluten-Free.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 (accessed September
10, 2012).
2. Chris Chase, “Is Novak Djokovic’s New, Gluten-free Diet Behind His Win Streak?” Yahoo! Sports, May 17, 2011,
http://sports.yahoo.com/tennis/blog/busted_racquet/post/Is-Novak-Djokovic-8217-s-new-gluten-free-diet-?urn=ten-wp706
(accessed September 10, 2012).
3. For a beautiful review of basic definitions about gluten and its effects on the body, please visit the library of resources at
http://www.healthspringholistic.com.
4. http://healthspringholistic.com.
5. David Perlmutter, MD, “Gluten Sensitivity and the Impact on the Brain,” http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dr-david-perlmuttermd/gluten-impacts-the-brain_b_785901.html,
November 21, 2010.
6. David Perlmutter, MD, and Alberto Villoldo, PhD, Power Up Your Brain: The Neuroscience of Enlightenment (New York: Hay
House, 2011).
7. Dr. Alessio Fasano of Boston’s Center for Celiac Research and Treatments, which is part of Massachusetts General Hospital, has
written extensively on gluten sensitivity and the many ways it can manifest in people—sometimes mimicking other disorders.
You can visit his website and access his publications at http://www.celiaccenter.org/.
8. Marios Hadjivassiliou, et al., “Does Cryptic Gluten Sensitivity Play a Part in Neurological Illness?” Lancet 347, no. 8998
(February 10, 1996): 369–71.
9. Marios Hadjivassiliou, et al., “Gluten Sensitivity as a Neurological Illness, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
72, no. 5 (May 2002): 560–63.
10. Bernadette Kalman and Thomas H. Brannagan III, “Neurological Manifestations of Gluten Sensitivity,” in Neuroimmunology in
Clinical Practice (Wiley-Blackwell, 2007). This book provides an excellent review of the history of celiac disease.
11. Marios Hadjivassiliou, et al., “Gluten Sensitivity: From Gut to Brain,” Lancet Neurology 9, no. 3 (March 2010): 318–30. This
article provides another wonderful overview of celiac through the ages.
12. T. William, et al., “Cognitive Impairment and Celiac Disease,” Archives of Neurology 63, no. 10 (October 2006): 1440–46. See
also: Mayo Clinic, “Mayo Clinic Discovers Potential Link Between Celiac Disease and Cognitive Decline,” ScienceDaily,
October 12, 2006, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061010022602.htm (accessed March 11, 2013).
13. Hadjivassiliou, et al., “Gluten Sensitivity: From Gut to Brain (see chap. 2, n. 11).
14. The following website is a gateway to Dr. Vojdani’s work and publications:
http://www.yourmedicaldetective.com/public/148.cfm.
15. Rodney P. Ford, “The Gluten Syndrome: A Neurological Disease,” Medical Hypotheses 73, no. 3 (September 2009): 438–40.
16. Gianna Ferretti, et al., “Celiac Disease, Inflammation and Oxidative Damage: A Nutrigenetic Approach,” Nutrients 4, no. 4
(April 2012): 243–257.
17. Ibid.
18. http://www.healthspringholistic.com.
19. Christine Zioudrou, et al., “Opioid Peptides Derived from Food Proteins (the Exorphins),” Journal of Biological Chemistry 254,
no. 7 (April 10, 1979): 2446–49.
20. Davis, Wheat Belly (see chap. 1, n. 17).
21. http://www.healthspringholistic.com.
Chapter 3
1. Craig Weller, http://www.barefootfts.com.
2. Roberts, et al., “Relative Intake of Macronutrients Impacts Risk of Mild Cognitive Impairment or Dementia” (see chap. 1, n. 2).
3. M. Mulder, et al., “Reduced Levels of Cholesterol, Phospholipids, and Fatty Acids in Cerebrospinal Fluid of Alzheimer Disease
Patients Are Not Related to Apolipoprotein E4,” Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders 12, no. 3 (September 1998): 198–
203.
4. P. Barberger-Gateau, et al., “Dietary Patterns and Risk of Dementia: The Three-city Cohort Study,” Neurology 69, no. 20
(November 13, 2007): 1921–30.
5. P. M. Kris-Etherton, et al., “Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Food Chain in the United States,” American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition 71, no. 1 (January 2000): S179–S188. See also: http://chriskresser.com/how-too-much-omega-6-and-not-enoughomega-3-is-making-us-sick.
6. Rebecca West, et al., “Better Memory Functioning Associated with Higher Total and Low-density Lipoprotein Cholesterol
Levels in Very Elderly Subjects Without the Apolipoprotein e4 Allele,” American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 16, no. 9
(September 2008): 781–85.
7. L. M. de Lau, et al., “Serum Cholesterol Levels and the Risk of Parkinson’s Disease,” American Journal of Epidemiology 164,
no. 10 (August 11, 2006): 998–1002.
8. X. Huang, et al., “Low LDL Cholesterol and Increased Risk of Parkinson’s Disease: Prospective Results from Honolulu-Asia
Aging Study,” Movement Disorders 23, no. 7 (May 15, 2008): 1013–18.
9. H. M. Krumholz, et al., “Lack of Association Between Cholesterol and Coronary Heart Disease Mortality and Morbidity and Allcause
Mortality in Persons Older Than 70 Years,” JAMA 272, no. 17 (November 2, 1994): 1335–40.
10. H. Petousis-Harris, “Saturated Fat Has Been Unfairly Demonised: Yes,” Primary Health Care 3, no. 4 (December 1, 2011):
317–19.
11. http://www.survivediabetes.com/lowfat.html.
12. A. W. Weverling-Rijnsburger, et al., “Total Cholesterol and Risk of Mortality in the Oldest Old,” Lancet 350, no. 9085 (October
18, 1997): 1119–23.
13. L. Dupuis, et al., “Dyslipidemia Is a Protective Factor in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis,” Neurology 70, no. 13 (March 25,
2008): 1004–09.
14. P. W. Siri-Tarino, et al., “Meta-analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies Evaluating the Association of Saturated Fat with
Cardiovascular Disease,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 91, no. 3 (March 2010): 535–46.
15. Michael I. Gurr, et al., Lipid Biochemistry: An Introduction, Fifth Edition (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010).
16. A. Astrup, et al., “The Role of Reducing Intakes of Saturated Fat in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Where Does the
Evidence Stand in 2010?” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 93, no. 4 (April 2011): 684–88.
17. For an engrossing, sweeping view of our dietary habits over the past century, see Dr. Donald W. Miller Jr.’s entry on Lew
Rockwell’s site at http://www.lewrockwell.com/miller/miller33.1.html (accessed May 13, 2013).
18. http://www.choosemyplate.gov/.
19. http://www.lewrockwell.com/miller/miller33.1.html.
20. International Atherosclerosis Project, “General Findings of the International Atherosclerosis Project,” Laboratory Investigation
18, no. 5 (May 1968): 498–502.
21. http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/DiabetesReportCard.pdf.
22. R. Stocker and J. F. Keaney Jr., “Role of Oxidative Modifications in Atherosclerosis,” Physiology Review 84, no. 4 (October
2004): 1381–1478.
23. Y. Kiyohara, “The Cohort Study of Dementia: The Hisayama Study,” Rinsho Shinkeigaku 51, no. 11 (November 2011): 906–
09. Note that the article is in Japanese. Also see Ann Harding’s coverage of this study for CNN Health at
http://www.cnn.com/2011/09/19/health/diabetes-doubles-alzheimers.
24. D. Jacobs, et al., “Report of the Conference on Low Blood Cholesterol: Mortality Associations,” Circulation 86, no. 3
(September 1992): 1046–60.
25. Duane Graveline, Lipitor, Thief of Memory: Statin Drugs and the Misguided War on Cholesterol (Duane Graveline, MD, 2006).
26. Culver, et al., “Statin Use and Risk of Diabetes Mellitus in Postmenopausal Women in the Women’s Health Initiative” (see
introduction, n. 2).
27. http://people.csail.mit.edu/seneff/alzheimers_statins.html.
28. Iowa State University, “Cholesterol-reducing Drugs May Lessen Brain Function, Says Researcher,” ScienceDaily (February 26,
2009), http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090223221430.htm (accessed March 13, 2012).
29. Center for Advancing Health, “Statins Do Not Help Prevent Alzheimer’s Disease, Review Finds,” ScienceDaily (April 16, 2009),
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/04/090415171324.htm (accessed March 13, 2013). See also: B. McGuinness, et al.,
“Statins for the Prevention of Dementia,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2 (2009).
30. Ibid.
31. Stephanie Seneff, “APOE-4: The Clue to Why Low Fat Diet and Statins May Cause Alzheimer’s” (December 15, 2009),
http://people.csail.mit.edu/seneff/alzheimers_statins.html.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. The National Library of Medicine (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/) contains peer-reviewed, published research on more than 300
known adverse effects associated with the use of statins. For a summary of some of the larger studies, check out the following:
http://www.greenmedinfo.com/toxic-ingredient/statin-drugs (accessed May 13, 2013).
35. G. Charach, et al., “Baseline Low-density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels and Outcome in Patients with Heart Failure,” American
Journal of Cardiology 105, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 100–04.
36. K. Rizvi, et al., “Do Lipid-lowering Drugs Cause Erectile Dysfunction? A Systematic Review,” Journal of Family Practice 19,
no. 1 (February 2002): 95–98.
37. G. Corona, et al., “The Effect of Statin Therapy on Testosterone Levels in Subjects Consulting for Erectile Dysfunction,” pt. 1,
Journal of Sexual Medicine 7, no. 4 (April 2010): 1547–56.
38. C. J. Malkin, et al., “Low Serum Testosterone and Increased Mortality in Men with Coronary Heart Disease,” Heart 96, no. 22
(November 2010): 1821–25.
Chapter 4
1. R. H. Lustig, et al., “Public Health: The Toxic Truth About Sugar,” Nature 482, no. 7383 (February 1, 2012): 27–29.
2. Gary Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories: Challenging the Conventional Wisdom on Diet, Weight Control, and Disease (New
York: Knopf, 2007).
3. Gary Taubes, “Is Sugar Toxic?” New York Times, April 13, 2011. Available online at
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/magazine/mag-17Sugar-t.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.
4. R. H. Lustig, “Sugar: The Bitter Truth,” video, http://youtu.be/dBnniua6-oM (2009). This is a captivating overview of sugar
metabolism.
5. Gary Taubes, Why We Get Fat: And What to Do About It (New York: Knopf, 2010).
6. Ibid., 134.
7. K. Yaffe, et al., “Diabetes, Glucose Control, and 9-year Cognitive Decline Among Older Adults Without Dementia,” Archives of
Neurology 69, no. 9 (September 2012): 1170–75.
8. R. O. Roberts, et al., “Association of Duration and Severity of Diabetes Mellitus with Mild Cognitive Impairment,” Archives of
Neurology 65, no. 8 (August 2008): 1066–73.
9. Amy Dockser Marcus, “Mad-cow Disease May Hold Clues to Other Neurological Disorders,” Wall Street Journal, December 3,
2012. Available online at http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324020804578151291509136144.html.
10. J. Stöhr, et al., “Purified and Synthetic Alzheimer’s Amyloid Beta (Aβ) Prions,” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 109, no. 27 (July 3, 2012): 11025–30.
11. L. C. Maillard, “Action of Amino Acids on Sugars: Formation of Melanoidins in a Methodical Way,” Comptes Rendus Chimie
154 (1912): 66–68.
12. P. Gkogkolou and M. Böhm, “Advanced Glycation End Products: Key Players in Skin Aging?” Dermato-Endocrinology 4, no.
3 (July 1, 2012): 259–70.
13. Q. Zhang, et al., “A Perspective on the Maillard Reaction and the Analysis of Protein Glycation by Mass Spectrometry: Probing
the Pathogenesis of Chronic Disease,” Journal of Proteome Research 8, no. 2 (February 2009): 754–69.
14. Sonia Gandhi and Audrey Abramov, “Mechanism of Oxidative Stress in Neurodegeneration,” Oxidative Medicine and Cellular
Longevity (2012).
15. C. Enzinger, et al., “Risk Factors for Progression of Brain Atrophy in Aging: Six-year Follow-up of Normal Subjects,”
Neurology 64, no. 10 (May 24, 2005): 1704–11.
16. M. Hamer, et al., “Haemoglobin A1c, Fasting Glucose and Future Risk of Elevated Depressive Symptoms over 2 Years of
Follow-up in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing,” Psychological Medicine 41, no. 9 (September 2011): 1889–96.
17. C. Geroldi, et al., “Insulin Resistance in Cognitive Impairment: The InCHIANTI Study,” Archives of Neurology 62, no. 7 (2005):
1067–72.
18. M. Adamczak and A. Wiecek, “The Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Organ,” Seminars in Nephrology 33, no. 1 (January 2013):
2–13.
19. E. L. de Hollander, et al., “The Association Between Waist Circumference and Risk of Mortality Considering Body Mass Index
in 65-to 74-year-olds: A Meta-analysis of 29 Cohorts Involving More Than 58,000 Elderly Persons,” International Journal of
Epidemiology 41, no. 3 (June 2012): 805–17.
20. F. Item and D. Konrad, “Visceral Fat and Metabolic Inflammation: The Portal Theory Revisited,” pt. 2, Obesity Reviews 13
(December 2012): S30–S39.
21. C. Geroldi, et al., “Insulin Resistance in Cognitive Impairment” (see chap. 4, n. 17).
22. C. A. Raji, et al., “Brain Structure and Obesity,” Human Brain Mapping 31, no. 3 (March 2010): 353–64.
23. R. A. Whitmer, et al., “Central Obesity and Increased Risk of Dementia More Than Three Decades Later,” Neurology 71, no. 14
(September 30, 2008): 1057–64.
24. http://www.internalmedicinenews.com/single-view/weight-loss-through-dieting-increases-insulinsensitivity/dd3b525509b3dad9b123535c7eb745b5.html.
25. C. B. Ebbeling, et al., “Effects of Dietary Composition on Energy Expenditure During Weight-loss Maintenance,” JAMA 307,
no. 24 (June 27, 2012): 2627–34.
26. R. Estruch, et al., “Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet,” New England Journal of Medicine
(February 25, 2013), http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1200303#t=article.
Chapter 5
1. Nicholas Wade, “Heart Muscle Renewed over Lifetime, Study Finds,” New York Times, April 2, 2009. Available online at
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/03/science/03heart.html.
2. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Cajal’s Degeneration and Regeneration of the Nervous System (History of Neuroscience) (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1991).
3. Charles C. Gross, “Neurogenesis in the Adult Brain: Death of a Dogma,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1, no. 1 (October 2000):
67–73. See this op-ed piece for a summation of how we’ve come to understand neurogenesis in mammals.
4. P. S. Eriksson, et al., “Neurogenesis in the Adult Human Hippocampus,” Nature Medicine 4, no. 11 (November 1998): 1313–
17.
5. David Perlmutter, MD, and Alberto Villoldo, PhD, Power Up Your Brain: The Neuroscience of Enlightenment (New York: Hay
House, 2011).
6. Norman Doidge, The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science (New York:
Viking, 2007).
7. J. Lee, et al., “Decreased Levels of BDNF Protein in Alzheimer Temporal Cortex Are Independent of BDNF Polymorphisms,”
Experimental Neurology 194, no. 1 (July 2005): 91–96.
8. Perlmutter, Power Up Your Brain (see chap. 2, n. 6).
9. A. V. Witte, et al., “Caloric Restriction Improves Memory in Elderly Humans,” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 106, no. 4 (January 27, 2009): 1255–60.
10. M. P. Mattson, et al., “Prophylactic Activation of Neuroprotective Stress Response Pathways by Dietary and Behavioral
Manipulations,” NeuroRx 1, no. 1 (January 2004): 111–16.
11. H. C. Hendrie, et al., “Incidence of Dementia and Alzheimer Disease in 2 Communities: Yoruba Residing in Ibadan, Nigeria,
and African Americans Residing in Indianapolis, Indiana,” JAMA 285, no. 6 (February 14, 2001): 739–47.
12. http://calorielab.com/news/2005/11/24/americans-eat-523-more-daily-calories-than-in-1970/.
13. http://www.forbes.com/sites/bethhoffman/2012/07/30/the-olympics-of-overeating-which-country-eats-the-most/.
14. Sources vary on the average sugar consumption. Interestingly, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which maintains statistics on
our sweet tooth, changed the numbers in 2012 after it employed new methodology that shaved 20 pounds off its estimate and
brought the number down to 76.7 pounds. (See: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/27/business/us-cuts-estimate-of-sugar-intakeof-typical-american.html?pagewanted=all.)
But estimating sugar consumption is difficult, and many argue that the numbers
above 100 pounds annually are more realistic.
15. A. V. Araya, et al., “Evaluation of the Effect of Caloric Restriction on Serum BDNF in Overweight and Obese Subjects:
Preliminary Evidences,” Endocrine 33, no. 3 (June 2008): 300–04.
16. R. Molteni, et al., “A High-fat, Refined Sugar Diet Reduces Hippocampal Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor, Neuronal
Plasticity, and Learning,” Neuroscience 112, no. 4 (2002): 803–14.
17. S. Srivastava and M. C. Haigis, “Role of Sirtuins and Calorie Restriction in Neuroprotection: Implications in Alzheimer’s and
Parkinson’s Diseases,” Current Pharmaceutical Design 17, no. 31 (2011): 3418–33.
18. Y. Nakajo, et al., “Genetic Increase in Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor Levels Enhances Learning and Memory,” Brain
Research 1241 (November 19, 2008): 103–09.
19. C. E. Stafstrom and J. M. Rho, “The Ketogenic Diet as a Treatment Paradigm for Diverse Neurological Disorders,” Frontiers in
Pharmacology 3 (2012): 59.
20. For a history of the ketogenic diet, see http://www.news-medical.net/health/History-of-the-Ketogenic-Diet.aspx.
21. M. Gasior, et al., “Neuroprotective and Disease-modifying Effects of the Ketogenic Diet,” Behavioral Pharmacology 17, nos. 5–
6 (September 2006): 431–39. See also: Z. Zhao, et al., “A Ketogenic Diet as a Potential Novel Therapeutic Intervention in
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, BMC Neuroscience 7 (April 3, 2006): 29.
22. T. B. Vanitallie, et al., “Treatment of Parkinson Disease with Diet-induced Hyperketonemia: A Feasibility Study,” Neurology 64,
no. 4 (February 22, 2005): 728–30.
23. M. A. Reger, et al., “Effects of Beta-hydroxybutyrate on Cognition in Memory-impaired Adults,” Neurobiology of Aging 25, no.
3 (March 2004): 311–14.
24. Mary Newport, “What If There Was a Cure for Alzheimer’s Disease and No One Knew?”
www.coconutketones.com/whatifcure.pdf (July 22, 2008).
25. I. Van der Auwera, et al., “A Ketogenic Diet Reduces Amyloid Beta 40 and 42 in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease,”
Nutrition & Metabolism 2 (October 17, 2005): 28.
26. D. R. Ziegler, et al., “Ketogenic Diet Increases Glutathione Peroxidase Activity in Rat Hippocampus,” Neurochemical Research
28, no. 12 (December 2003): 1793–97.
27. K. W. Barañano and A. L. Hartman, “The Ketogenic Diet: Uses in Epilepsy and Other Neurologic Illnesses,” Current Treatment
Options in Neurology 10, no. 6 (November 2008): 410–19.
28. Taubes, Why We Get Fat: And What to Do About It, p. 178 (see chap. 4, n. 5).
29. G. L. Xiong and P. M. Doraiswamy, “Does Meditation Enhance Cognition and Brain Plasticity?” Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences 1172 (August 2009): 63–69. See also: E. Dakwar and F. R. Levin, “The Emerging Role of Meditation in
Addressing Psychiatric Illness, with a Focus on Substance Use Disorders,” Harvard Review of Psychiatry 17, no. 4 (2009): 254–
67.
30. K. Yurko-Mauro, et al., “Beneficial Effects of Docosahexaenoic Acid on Cognition in Age-related Cognitive Decline,”
Alzheimer’s and Dementia 6, no. 6 (November 2010): 456–64.
31. M. C. Morris, et al., “Consumption of Fish and n-3 Fatty Acids and Risk of Incident Alzheimer Disease,” Archives of Neurology
60, no. 7 (July 2003): 940–46.
32. E. J. Schaefer, et al., “Plasma Phosphatidylcholine Docosahexaenoic Acid Content and Risk of Dementia and Alzheimer
Disease: The Framingham Heart Study,” Archives of Neurology 63, no. 11 (November 2006): 1545–50.
33. Mattson, et al., “Prophylactic Activation of Neuroprotective Stress Response Pathways by Dietary and Behavioral
Manipulations” (see chap. 5, n. 10). See also: M. P. Mattson, et al., “Modification of Brain Aging and Neurodegenerative
Disorders by Genes, Diet, and Behavior,” Physiological Reviews 82, no. 3 (July 2002): 637–72.
34. Some of the material here was adapted from Power Up Your Brain: The Neuroscience of Enlightenment (New York: Hay House,
2011) and from an article by Dr. David Perlmutter titled “Free Radicals: How They Speed the Aging Process,” posted by the
Huffington Post (http://www.huffingtonpost.com) on January 25, 2011.
35. D. Harman, “Aging: A Theory Based on Free Radical and Radiation Chemistry,” Journal of Gerontology 11, no. 3 (July 1956):
298–300.
36. D. Harman, “Free Radical Theory of Aging: Dietary Implications,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 25, no. 8 (August
1972): 839–43.
37. W. R. Markesbery and M. A. Lovell, “Damage to Lipids, Proteins, DNA, and RNA in Mild Cognitive Impairment,” Archives of
Neurology 64, no. 7 (July 2007): 954–56.
38. L. Gao, et al., “Novel n-3 Fatty Acid Oxidation Products Activate Nrf2 by Destabilizing the Association Between Keap1 and
Cullin3,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 282, no. 4 (January 26, 2007): 2529–37.
39. U. Boettler, et al., “Coffee Constituents as Modulators of Nrf2 Nuclear Translocation and ARE (EpRE)-dependent Gene
Expression,” Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 22, no. 5 (May 2011): 426–40.
40. http://www.nia.nih.gov.
Chapter 6
1. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/data.html.
2. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/slaits/nsch.htm.
3. Alan Schwarz and Sarah Cohen, “A.D.H.D. Seen in 11% of U.S. Children as Diagnoses Rise,” New York Times, March 31,
2013. Accessible at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/01/health/more-diagnoses-of-hyperactivity-causing-concern.html?_r=0
(accessed April 1, 2013).
4. Ibid.
5. Express Scripts, “America’s State of Mind (originally published by Medco Health Solutions, Inc.),
http://www.toxicpsychiatry.com/storage/Psych%20Drug%20Us%20Epidemic%20Medco%20rpt%20Nov%202011.pdf (accessed
March 20, 2013).
6. N. Zelnik, et al., “Range of Neurologic Disorders in Patients with Celiac Disease,” Pediatrics 113, no. 6 (June 2004): 1672–76.
See also: M. Percy and E. Propst, “Celiac Disease: Its Many Faces and Relevance to Developmental Disabilities,” Journal on
Developmental Disabilities 14, no. 2 (2008).
7. L. Corvaglia, et al., “Depression in Adult Untreated Celiac Subjects: Diagnosis by the Pediatrician,” American Journal of
Gastroenterology 94, no. 3 (March 1999): 839–43.
8. James M. Greenblatt, MD, “Is Gluten Making You Depressed? The Link between Celiac Disease and Depression,” The
Breakthrough Depression Solution (blog), Psychology Today, May 24, 2011, http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/thebreakthrough-depression-solution/201105/is-gluten-making-you-depressed.
9. American Academy of Pediatrics, “Gastrointestinal Problems Common in Children with Autism,” ScienceDaily,
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100502080234.htm (accessed March 20, 2013). See also: L. W. Wang, et al.,
“The Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Problems in Children Across the United States with Autism Spectrum Disorders from
Families with Multiple Affected Members,” Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 32, no. 5 (June 2011): 351–60.
10. T. L. Lowe, et al., “Stimulant Medications Precipitate Tourette’s Syndrome,” JAMA 247, no. 12 (March 26, 1982): 1729–31.
11. M. A. Verkasalo, et al., “Undiagnosed Silent Coeliac Disease: A Risk for Underachievement?” Scandinavian Journal of
Gastroenterology 40, no. 12 (December 2005): 1407–12.
12. S. Amiri, et al., “Pregnancy-related Maternal Risk Factors of Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Case-control Study,”
ISRN Pediatrics (2012) doi: 10.5402/2012/458064.
13. A. K. Akobeng, et al., “Effect of Breast Feeding on Risk of Coeliac Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of
Observational Studies,” Archives of Disease in Childhood 91, no. 1 (January 2006): 39–43.
14. S. J. Blumberg, et al., “Changes in Prevalence of Parent-reported Autism Spectrum Disorder in School-aged U.S. Children: 2007
to 2011–2012,” National Health Statistics Report No. 65 (March 20, 2013). Available at
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr065.pdf.
15. S. J. Genuis, et al., “Celiac Disease Presenting as Autism,” Journal of Child Neurology 25, no. 1 (January 2013): 114–19.
16. P. Whiteley, et al., “A Gluten-free Diet as an Intervention for Autism and Associated Spectrum Disorders: Preliminary Findings,”
Autism 3, no. 1 (March 1999): 45–65.
17. K. L. Reichelt and A. M. Knivsberg, “Can the Pathophysiology of Autism Be Explained by the Nature of the Discovered Urine
Peptides?” Nutritional Neuroscience 6, no. 1 (February 2003): 19–28. See also: A. E. Kalaydjian, et al., “The Gluten
Connection: The Association Between Schizophrenia and Celiac Disease,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 113, no. 2 (February
2006): 82–90.
18. C. M. Pennesi and L. C. Klein, “Effectiveness of the Gluten-free, Casein-free Diet for Children Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum
Disorder: Based on Parental Report,” Nutritional Neuroscience 15, no. 2 (March 2012): 85–91. See also: ScienceDaily,
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/02/120229105128.htm (accessed March 26, 2013).
19. C. J. L. Murray and A. D. Lopez, “The Global Burden of Disease: A Comprehensive Assessment of Mortality and Disability
from Diseases, Injuries and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected to 2020,” World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
(1996). See also: http://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/basics.htm.
20. J. W. Smoller, et al., “Antidepressant Use and Risk of Incident Cardiovascular Morbidity and Mortality Among Postmenopausal
Women in the Women’s Health Initiative Study,” Archives of Internal Medicine 169, no. 22 (December 14, 2009): 2128–39.
21. J. C. Fournier, et al., “Antidepressant Drug Effects and Depression Severity: A Patient-level Meta-analysis,” JAMA 303, no. 1
(January 6, 2010): 47–53.
22. J. Y. Shin, et al., “Are Cholesterol and Depression Inversely Related? A Meta-analysis of the Association Between Two Cardiac
Risk Factors,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine 36, no. 1 (August 2008): 33–43.
23. http://www.naturalnews.com/032125_statins_memory_loss.html.
24. James Greenblatt, MD, “Low Cholesterol and Its Psychological Effects: Low Cholesterol Is Linked to Depression, Suicide, and
Violence,” The Breakthrough Depression Solution (blog), Psychology Today, June 10, 2011,
http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-breakthrough-depression-solution/201106/low-cholesterol-and-its-psychologicaleffects.
25. R. E. Morgan, et al., “Plasma Cholesterol and Depressive Symptoms in Older Men,” Lancet 341, no. 8837 (January 9, 1993):
75–79.
26. M. Horsten, et al., “Depressive Symptoms, Social Support, and Lipid Profile in Healthy Middle-aged Women,” Psychosomatic
Medicine 59, no. 5 (September–October 1997): 521–28.
27. P. H. Steegmans, et al., “Higher Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms in Middle-aged Men with Low Serum Cholesterol Levels,”
Psychosomatic Medicine 62, no. 2 (March–April 2000): 205–11.
28. M. M. Perez-Rodriguez, et al., “Low Serum Cholesterol May Be Associated with Suicide Attempt History,” Journal of Clinical
Psychiatry 69, no. 12 (December 2008): 1920–27.
29. J. A. Boscarino, et al., “Low Serum Cholesterol and External-cause Mortality: Potential Implications for Research and
Surveillance,” Journal of Psychiatric Research 43, no. 9 (June 2009): 848–54.
30. Sarah T. Melton, “Are Cholesterol Levels Linked to Bipolar Disorder?” Medscape Today News, Ask the Pharmacists, May 16,
2011, http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/741999 (accessed May 13, 2013).
31. C. Hallert and J. Aström, “Psychic Disturbances in Adult Coeliac Disease,” Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 17, no. 1
(January 1982): 21–24.
32. C. Ciacci, et al., “Depressive Symptoms in Adult Coeliac Disease,” Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 33, no. 3 (March
1998): 247–50.
33. James M. Greenblatt, MD, “Is Gluten Making You Depressed? The Link Between Celiac Disease and Depression,” The
Breakthrough Depression Solution (blog), Psychology Today, http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-breakthroughdepression-solution/201105/is-gluten-making-you-depressed
(May 24, 2011).
34. J. F. Ludvigsson, et al., “Coeliac Disease and Risk of Mood Disorders—A General Population-based Cohort Study,” Journal of
Affective Disorders 99, nos. 1–3 (April 2007): 117–26.
35. J. F. Ludvigsson, et al., “Increased Suicide Risk in Coeliac Disease—A Swedish Nationwide Cohort Study,” Digest of Liver
Disorders 43, no. 8 (August 2011): 616–22.
36. M. G. Carta, et al., “Recurrent Brief Depression in Celiac Disease,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 55, no. 6 (December
2003): 573–74.
37. C. Briani, et al., “Neurological Complications of Celiac Disease and Autoimmune Mechanisms: A Prospective Study,” Journal
of Neuroimmunology 195, nos. 1–2 (March 2008): 171–75.
38. Greenblatt, “Is Gluten Making You Depressed?” (see chap. 6, n. 8).
39. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=gut-second-brain.
40. M. Siwek, et al., “Zinc Supplementation Augments Efficacy of Imipramine in Treatment Resistant Patients: A Double Blind,
Placebo-controlled Study,” Journal of Affective Disorders 118, nos. 1–3 (November 2009): 187–95.
41. Greenblatt, “Is Gluten Making You Depressed?” (see chap. 6, n. 8).
42. Karlsson, et al., “Maternal Antibodies to Dietary Antigens and Risk for Nonaffective Psychosis in Offspring,” American Journal
of Psychiatry 169, no. 6 (June 2012): 625–32.
43. Grace Rattue, “Schizophrenia Risk in Kids Associated with Mothers’ Gluten Antibodies,” Medical News Today, 2012.
Accessible at http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/245484.php (accessed March 30, 2013).
44. B. D. Kraft and E. C. Westman, “Schizophrenia, Gluten, and Low-carbohydrate, Ketogenic Diets: A Case Report and Review of
the Literature,” Nutrition & Metabolism (London) 6 (February 26, 2009): 10.
45. http://www.webmd.com/migraines-headaches/default.htm (accessed May 13, 2013).
46. A. K. Dimitrova, et al., “Prevalence of Migraine in Patients with Celiac Disease and Inflammatory Bowel Disease,” Headache
53, no. 2 (February 2013): 344–55.
47. M. Hadjivassiliou and R. Grünewald, “The Neurology of Gluten Sensitivity: Science vs. Conviction,” Practical Neurology 4
(2004): 124–26.
48. http://www.celiaccenter.org/.
49. S. M. Wolf, et al., “Pediatric Migraine Management,” Pain Medicine News (September/October 2003): 1–6.
50. E. Lionetti, et al. “Headache in Pediatric Patients with Celiac Disease and Its Prevalence as a Diagnostic Clue,” Journal of
Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 49, no. 2 (August 2009): 202–07.
51. D. Ferraro and G. Di Trapani, “Topiramate in the Prevention of Pediatric Migraine: Literature Review,” Journal of Headache
Pain 9, no. 3 (June 2008): 147–50.
52. E. Bakola, et al., “Anticonvulsant Drugs for Pediatric Migraine Prevention: An Evidence-based Review,” European Journal of
Pain 13, no. 9 (October 2009): 893–901.
53. B. L. Peterlin, et al., “Obesity and Migraine: The Effect of Age, Gender, and Adipose Tissue Distribution,” Headache 50, no. 1
(January 2010): 52–62.
54. M. E. Bigal, et al., “Obesity, Migraine, and Chronic Migraine: Possible Mechanisms of Interaction,” Neurology 68, no. 27 (May
22, 2007): 1851–61.
55. M. E. Bigal and R. B. Lipton, “Obesity Is a Risk Factor for Transformed Migraine but Not Chronic Tension-type Headache,”
Neurology 67, no. 2 (July 25, 2006): 252–57.
56. L. Robberstad, et al., “An Unfavorable Lifestyle and Recurrent Headaches Among Adolescents: The HUNT Study,” Neurology
75, no. 8 (August 24, 2010): 712–17.
Chapter 7
1. Perlmutter, Power Up Your Brain (see chap. 5, n. 5). Also see an article posted at http://healyourlife.com on April 25, 2011 by
Drs. Perlmutter and Villoldo entitled “Size Does Matter!”
2. G. F. Cahill and R. L. Veech Jr., “Ketoacids? Good Medicine?” Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological
Association 114 (2003): 149–61.
3. M. P. Mattson and R. Wan, “Beneficial Effects of Intermittent Fasting and Caloric Restriction on the Cardiovascular and
Cerebrovascular Systems,” Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 16, no. 3 (March 2005): 129–37.
4. G. Zuccoli, et al., “Metabolic Management of Glioblastoma Multiforme Using Standard Therapy Together with a Restricted
Ketogenic Diet: Case Report,” Nutrition & Metabolism (London) 7 (April 22, 2010): 33.
5. J. A. Baur and D. A. Sinclair, “Therapeutic Potential of Resveratrol: The In Vivo Evidence,” Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 5,
no. 6 (June 2006): 493–506.
6. D. O. Kennedy, et al., “Effects of Resveratrol on Cerebral Blood Flow Variables and Cognitive Performance in Humans: A
Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Crossover Investigation,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 91, no. 6 (June 2010):
1590–97.
7. T. P. Ng, et al., “Curry Consumption and Cognitive Function in the Elderly,” American Journal of Epidemiology 164, no. 9
(November 1, 2006): 898–906.
8. K. Tillisch, et al., “Consumption of Fermented Milk Product with Probiotic Modulates Brain Activity,” Gastroenterology pii:
S0016-5085(13)00292-8. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2013.02.043 (March 1, 2013).
9. J. A. Bravo, et al., “Ingestion of Lactobacillus Strain Regulates Emotional Behavior and Central GABA Receptor Expression in a
Mouse Via the Vagus Nerve,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 138 (September 20, 2011): 16050–55.
10. A. C. Bested, et al., “Intestinal Microbiota, Probiotics and Mental Health: From Metchnikoff to Modern Advances: Part I—
Autointoxication Revisited,” Gut Pathogens 5, no. 1 (March 18, 2013): 5. See also Parts II and III of the same report.
11. J. F. Cryan and S. M. O’Mahony, “The Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis: From Bowel to Behavior,” Neurogastroenterology and
Motility 23, no. 3 (March 2011): 187–92.
12. Michael Gershon, MD, The Second Brain: The Scientific Basis of Gut Instinct and a Groundbreaking New Understanding of
Nervous Disorders of the Stomach and Intestines (New York: Harper, 1998).
13. For more about the brain-gut connection, check out the work of Dr. Emeran Mayer, MD, director of the University of California
Los Angeles’s Center for Neurobiology of Stress. In particular, The Globe and Mail featured him in an article by Chantal Ouimet
(“The Gut Has a Mind of Its Own”) published on December 31, 2002. It can be accessed at
http://www.ibs.med.ucla.edu/Articles/PatientArticle001.htm.
14. L. Packer, et al., “Neuroprotection by the Metabolic Antioxidant Alpha-lipoic Acid,” Free Radical Biology & Medicine 22, nos.
1–2 (1997): 359–78.
15. For everything you want to know about vitamin D, including in-depth discussion of studies, refer to Dr. Michael Holick’s
seminal book The Vitamin D Solution: A 3-Step Strategy to Cure Our Most Common Health Problems (New York: Hudson Street
Press, 2010).
16. http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2010/07/13/vitamin-d-deficiency-linked-to-parkinsons-disease-cognitivedecline/.
17. C. Annweiler, et al., “Higher Vitamin D Dietary Intake Is Associated with Lower Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease: A 7-year Followup,”
Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 67, no. 11 (November 2012): 1205–11.
18. D. J. Llewellyn, et al., “Vitamin D and Risk of Cognitive Decline in Elderly Persons,” Archives of Internal Medicine 170, no. 13
(July 12, 2012): 1135–41.
19. S. Simpson Jr., et al., “Higher 25-hydroxyvitamin D Is Associated with Lower Relapse Risk in Multiple Sclerosis,” Annals of
Neurology 68, no. 2 (August 2010): 193–203. See also: C. Pierrot-Deseilligny, et al., “Relationship Between 25-OH-D Serum
Level and Relapse Rate in Multiple Sclerosis Patients Before and After Vitamin D Supplementation,” Therapeutic Advances in
Neurological Disorders 5, no. 4 (July 2012): 187–98.
20. R. E. Anglin, et al., “Vitamin D Deficiency and Depression in Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis,” British Journal of
Psychiatry 202 (February 2013): 100–07.
Chapter 8
1. C. W. Cotman, et al., “Exercise Builds Brain Health: Key Roles of Growth Factor Cascades and Inflammation,” Trends in
Neuroscience 30, no. 9 (September 2007): 464–72. See also: University of Edinburgh, “Exercise the Body to Keep the Brain
Healthy, Study Suggests,” ScienceDaily, October 22, 2012, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121022162647.htm
(accessed March 21, 2013).
2. L. F. Defina, et al., “The Association Between Midlife Cardiorespiratory Fitness Levels and Later-life Dementia: A Cohort
Study,” Annals of Internal Medicine 158, no. 3 (February 5, 2013): 162–68.
3. Gretchen Reynolds, “How Exercise Could Lead to a Better Brain,” New York Times Magazine, April 18, 2012. Accessible at:
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/magazine/how-exercise-could-lead-to-a-better-brain.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.
4. A. S. Buchman, et al., “Total Daily Physical Activity and the Risk of AD and Cognitive Decline in Older Adults,” Neurology 78,
no. 17 (April 24, 2012): 1323–29.
5. D. M. Bramble and D. E. Lieberman, “Endurance Running and the Evolution of Homo,” Nature 432, no. 7015 (November 18,
2004): 345–52.
6. D. A. Raichlen and A. D. Gordon, “Relationship Between Exercise Capacity and Brain Size in Mammals,” PLOS One 6, no. 6
(2011).
7. Gretchen Reynolds, “Exercise and the Ever-Smarter Human Brain,” New York Times, December 26, 2012. Available at:
http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/26/exercise-and-the-ever-smarter-human-brain/.
8. D. A. Raichlen and J. D. Polk, “Linking Brains and Brawn: Exercise and the Evolution of Human Neurobiology,” Proceedings
of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 280, no. 1750 (January 7, 2013): 2012–50.
9. Reynolds, “How Exercise Could Lead to a Better Brain” (see chap. 8, n. 3).
10. P. J. Clark, et al., “Genetic Influences on Exercise-induced Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis Across 12 Divergent Mouse
Strains,” Genes, Brain and Behavior 10, no. 3 (April 2011): 345–53. See also: R. A. Kohman, et al., “Voluntary Wheel Running
Reverses Age-induced Changes in Hippocampal Gene Expression,” PLOS One 6, no. 8 (2011): e22654.
11. K. I. Erickson, et al., “Exercise Training Increases Size of Hippocampus and Improves Memory,” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 108, no. 7 (February 15, 2011): 3017–22.
12. N. Kee, et al., “Preferential Incorporation of Adult-generated Granule Cells into Spatial Memory Networks in the Dentate
Gyrus,” Nature Neuroscience 10, no. 3 (March 2007): 355–62. See also: C. W. Wu, et al., “Treadmill Exercise Counteracts the
Suppressive Effects of Peripheral Lipopolysaccharide on Hippocampal Neurogenesis and Learning and Memory. Journal of
Neurochemistry 103, no. 6 (December 2007): 2471–81.
13. N. T. Lautenschlager, et al., “Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease: A
Randomized Trial,” JAMA 300, no. 9 (September 3, 2008): 1027–37.
14. J. Weuve, et al., “Physical Activity, Including Walking, and Cognitive Function in Older Women,” JAMA 292, no. 12
(September 22, 2004): 1454–61.
15. A. Yavari, et al., “The Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Glycosylated Hemoglobin Values in Type 2 Diabetes Patients,” Journal of
Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 50, no. 4 (December 2010): 501–05.
16. Buchman, et al., “Total Daily Physical Activity and the Risk of AD and Cognitive Decline in Older Adults” (see chap. 8, n. 4).
See also: Rush University Medical Center, “Daily Physical Activity May Reduce Alzheimer’s Disease Risk at Any Age,”
ScienceDaily, April 18, 2012, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120418203530.htm (accessed March 21, 2013).
Chapter 9
1. For a general overview of the relationship between sleep and health, go to:
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brain_basics/understanding_sleep.htm. Also refer to the works of Dr. Michael Breus, a noted
authority on sleep medicine: http://www.thesleepdoctor.com/.
2. Benedict Carey, “Aging in Brain Found to Hurt Sleep Needed for Memory,” New York Times, January 27, 2013. Accessible at
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/28/health/brain-aging-linked-to-sleep-related-memory-decline.html (accessed May 13, 2013).
See also: B. A. Mander, et al., “Prefrontal Atrophy, Disrupted NREM Slow Waves and Impaired Hippocampal-dependent
Memory in Aging,” Nature Neuroscience 16, no. 3 (March 2013): 357–64.
3. C. S. Möller-Levet, et al., “Effects of Insufficient Sleep on Circadian Rhythmicity and Expression Amplitude of the Human Blood
Transcriptome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 12 (March 19, 2013):E1132–41.
4. For volumes of data about sleep and statistics about how much we get, refer to the National Sleep Foundation at
http://www.nationalsleepfoundation.org.
5. Ann Luktis, “Sleep’s Surprising Effects on Hunger,” Wall Street Journal, Health, December 17, 2012. Accessible at:
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324296604578175681814776920.html.
6. T. Blackwell, et al., “Associations Between Sleep Architecture and Sleep-disordered Breathing and Cognition in Older
Community-dwelling Men: The Osteoporotic Fractures in Men Sleep Study,” Journal of the American Geriatric Society 59, no.
12 (December 2011): 2217–25. See also: K. Yaffe, et al., “Sleep-disordered Breathing, Hypoxia, and Risk of Mild Cognitive
Impairment and Dementia in Older Women,” JAMA 306, no. 6 (August 10, 2011): 613–19. See also: A. P. Spira, et al., “Sleepdisordered
Breathing and Cognition in Older Women,” Journal of the American Geriatric Society 56, no. 1 (January 2008): 45–
50.
7. Y. Zhang, et al., “Positional Cloning of the Mouse Obese Gene and Its Human Homologue,” Nature 372, no. 6505 (December 1,
1994): 425–32.
8. E. D. Green, et al., “The Human Obese (OB) Gene: RNA Expression Pattern and Mapping on the Physical, Cytogenetic, and
Genetic Maps of Chromosome 7,” Genome Research 5, no. 1 (August 1995): 5–12.
9. Nora T. Gedgaudas, Primal Body, Primal Mind: Beyond the Paleo Diet for Total Health and a Longer Life (Rochester, Vermont:
Healing Arts Press, 2011).
10. K. Spiegel, et al., “Brief Communication: Sleep Curtailment in Healthy Young Men Is Associated with Decreased Leptin Levels,
Elevated Ghrelin Levels, and Increased Hunger and Appetite,” Annals of Internal Medicine 141, no. 11 (December 7, 2004):
846–50.
11. S. Taheri, et al., “Short Sleep Duration Is Associated with Reduced Leptin, Elevated Ghrelin, and Increased Body Mass Index,”
PLOS Medicine 1, no. 3 (December 2004) : e62.
12. W. A. Banks, et al., “Triglycerides Induce Leptin Resistance at the Blood-Brain Barrier,” Diabetes 53, no. 5 (May 2004): 1253–
60.
13. Ron Rosedale and Carol Colman, The Rosedale Diet (New York: William Morrow, 2004).
Chapter 10
1. J. Gray and B. Griffin, “Eggs and Dietary Cholesterol—Dispelling the Myth,” Nutrition Bulletin 34, no. 1 (March 2009): 66–70.
2. For more information and access to studies about eggs, go to http://www.incredibleegg.org and read Janet Raloff’s article
“Reevaluating Eggs’ Cholesterol Risks” for Science News (web edition, May 2, 2006) at
http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/7301/description/Reevaluating_Eggs_Cholesterol_Risks.
3. C. N. Blesso, et al., “Whole Egg Consumption Improves Lipoprotein Profiles and Insulin Sensitivity to a Greater Extent Than
Yolk-free Egg Substitute in Individuals with Metabolic Syndrome,” Metabolism 62, no. 3 (March 2013): 400–10.
Epilogue
1. The World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/chp/chronic_disease_report/media/Factsheet1.pdf.
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